After the loss of the East Wing of
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in the 1971 war with India, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto assumed power as
Prime Minister of Pakistan on December 20, 1971 and attempted to restore civilian control.
He negotiated a peace settlement with India in 1972, and attempted to revitalize the
economy and tried to reform the civil service. However, he was unable to bring about an
effective transition to democratic institutions and his near-monopoly on decision-making
and his excessive ambition antagonized almost everyone. Following a hotly-contested
election in which massive fraud was alleged, the military seized control of the government
on July 5, 1977 and proclaimed martial law. General Mohammad Zia ul-Haq became head of
state.
The United States under President Jimmy
Carter was not at all pleased by the military seizure of power in Pakistan, and issues of
human rights and nuclear nonproliferation were of concern. The execution of Bhutto in
April of 1979 on charges that he participated in the murder of a political opponent did
not help, and the United States was generally reluctant to provide any sort of military
assistance to Pakistan. However, this policy was to change when the Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan in December of 1979 in support of the pro-Soviet government in Kabul which was
being hard-pressed by Mujahadeen rebel forces. President Carter suddenly offered Pakistan
an aid package of 400 million dollars, which Zia spurned as being much too small.
When Ronald Reagan became president of
the United States in January of 1981, American policy suddenly changed, and the level of
assistance to Pakistan increased substantially. In December of 1981, the government of
Pakistan signed a letter of agreement for the purchase of 40 F-16A/B fighters for the
Pakistan Fiza'ya (Pakistan Air Force, or PAF). The first aircraft were accepted at Fort
Worth in October of 1982. Transition training for Pakistani aircrews and ground personnel
was carried out by the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron of the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing
at Hill AFB in Utah. The first two F-16As and four F-16Bs arrived in Pakistan in January
of 1983.
The Pakistani F-16A/Bs were all from
Block 15, the final version of the F-16A/B production run. They are powered by the Pratt
& Whitney F100-PW-200 turbofan. The first unit to equip with the F-16 was No. 11
Squadron based at Sargodha. All 40 of the the Fighting Falcons had entered PAF service by
mid-1986. This made it possible to establish two more squadrons, No. 9 at Sargodha and No.
14 at Kamra. No 11 Squadron operates as the OCU.
Pakistan was the second nation (after
Israel) to use the F-16 in combat. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 in support
of the pro-Soviet government in Kabul which was being hard-pressed by Mujahadeen rebel
forces marked the start of a decade-long occupation. Mujahadeen rebels continued to harass
the occupying Soviet military force as well as the forces of the Afghan regime that it was
supporting. The war soon spilled over into neighboring Pakistan, with a horde of refugees
fleeing to camps across the border in an attempt to escape the conflict. In addition, many
of the rebels used Pakistan as a sanctuary from which to carry out forays into
Afghanistan, and a steady flow of US-supplied arms were carried into Afghanistan from
staging areas in Pakistan near the border. This inevitably resulted in border violations
by Soviet and Afghan aircraft attempting to interdict these operations. Between May 1986
and November of 1988, PAF F-16s have shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan.
The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22, and one An-26) were shot down by
two pilots from No. 9 Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remaining five
intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-25). Most of these kills were by the AIM-9
Sidewinder, but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon fire. Flight Lieutenant
Khalid Mamood is credited with three of these kills. At least one F-16 was lost in these
battles, this one in an encounter between two F-16s and six Afghan Air Force aircraft on
April 29, 1987. However, the lost F-16 appears to have been an "own goal",
having been hit by a Sidewinder fired by the other F-16. The unfortunate F-16 pilot
ejected safely.
Pakistani F-16s typically carry two
all-aspect AIM-9Ls on the wing tip rails along with a pair of AIM-9Ps on the outermost
underwing racks. Pakistani F-16s have an important strike role, being fitted with the
French-built Thompson-CSF ATLIS laser designation pod and the capability to deliver
Paveway laser-guided bombs. The ATLIS was first fitted to Pakistani F-16s in January of
1986. The F-16 became the first non-European aircraft to be qualified for the ATLIS pod.
Zia was killed in a mysterious plane
crash on August 17, 1988, along with the chairman of the military joint chiefs committee,
the American ambassador, and 27 others. Sabotage was the likely cause. Benazir Bhutto
(Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's daughter) was sworn in as prime minister on December 1, 1988.
In December of 1988, Pakistan ordered 11
additional F-16A/B Block 15 OCU (Operational Capability Upgrade) aircraft, and in
September of 1989, plans were announced for Pakistan to acquire 60 more F-16A/Bs. A down
payment of $685 M was received, and work on the planes began.
The F-16 deal got unwound because
Pakistan got itself involved in a controversy with the United States over its suspected
nuclear weapons capability. India had exploded an underground nuclear device on May 18,
1974, and Pakistani prime minister Bhutto pledged at the time that his country would match
that development even if his people had to "eat grass" to cover the cost. Zia
somewhat reluctantly continued the nuclear development program after he seized power, even
though he did make several attempts to reach some sort of arms limitation agreement with
India. However, a number of United States laws and amendments to the Foreign Assistance
Act of 1961 applied to Pakistan and its program of nuclear weapons development. The
Symington Amendment of 1976 required that economic assistance be terminated to any country
that imported uranium enrichment technology. The Glenn Amendment of 1977 similarly called
for an end to aid to countries that imported reprocessing technology, which Pakistan had
done from France. United States economic assistance, except for food aid, was terminated
under the Symington Amendment in April 1979. In 1985 the Solarz Amendment was added to
prohibit aid to countries that attempt to import nuclear commodities from the United
States. In the same year, the Pressler Amendment was passed, referring specifically to
Pakistan. This amendment stated specifically that if Pakistan actually possessed a nuclear
device, aid would have to be suspended.
Intelligence information reaching US
authorities indicated that Pakistan was actively working on a nuclear bomb, had received a
design for a bomb from China, had tested a nuclear trigger, and was actively producing
weapons-grade uranium. The F-16As of Nos 9 and 11 Squadrons at Sargodha have allegedly
been modified with the means of carrying and delivering a Pakistani nuclear weapon.
Invoking the Pressler amendment, the United States government announced on October 6, 1990
that it had embargoed further arms deliveries to Pakistan. A total of 71 F-16s on order
were affected by the embargo.
While the arguments between the Pakistani
and American governments went back and forth, the planes continued to roll off the
production lines at Fort Worth, but they were immediately placed in storage at Davis
Monthan AFB in Arizona. By the end of 1994, 28 of these planes had been built and placed
in storage. A stop-work order prevented the remaining 43 planes on the contract from being
started.
Pakistan has already paid $685 million on
the contract, and insists on either having the planes it ordered delivered or getting its
money back. A compromise was offered in March of 1995 allowing the delivery of some of the
embargoed planes. Under the compromise, the 28 F-16s already built would be allowed to be
delivered to Pakistan, plus a further ten to equal the value of the money already paid.
Pakistan's Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto (who had been dismissed from office by the
Pakistani president in 1990 but had been re-elected in October of 1993) visited Washington
in an attempt to persuade President Bill Clinton to rescind the embargo against Pakistan,
but the US government has remained steadfast.
In late May of 1995, Senator Larry
Pressler (the original author of the embargo legislation) proposed as a compromise that 17
of the 28 embargoed planes be transferred to Taiwan, with the remaining 11 going to the
Philippines. Pakistan would then be reimbursed for the undelivered planes using proceeds
from the sale. However, these planes were by that time essentially second-hand aircraft
which had been in storage for some time, and their sale would be unlikely to raise the
$658 million originally paid by Pakistan. Taiwan already had 150 more-advanced later-model
F-16s on order and is unlikely to want additional older models. In any case, the Chinese
government was very unhappy about Taiwan obtaining still more F-16s. However, the offer of
F-16s to the Philippines may be attractive, since it is still operating elderly F-5Es.
An agreement was announced in which the
28 embargoed planes would be leased to New Zealand. As compensation, 463.7 million dollars
will be returned to Pakistan. However, this deal fell through in March of 2000 when New
Zealand decided that they could not afford these aircraft. The Pakistani planes are still
languishing in the Arizona desert.
In May of 1998, India and Pakistan
carried out eleven nuclear tests, confirming their long-suspected potential in this area.
Since India and Pakistan have already fought three separate wars with each other since
partition--two over Kashmir and one over East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)--there is a danger
that any future conflict could result in a nuclear exchange between these nations and
millions of deaths.
Pakistani F-16s were assigned USAF serial
numbers for record-keeping purposes. PAF F-16s carry a three-digit PAF serial number on
their noses, the F-16As being assigned numbers in sequence beginning with 701, and the
F-16Bs being assigned numbers beginning with 601. These numbers are prefixed by two digits
on the tail, these prefixes (I think) indicating the year of service entry.
Serials of Pakistani F-16s:
81-0899/0900 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15E Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (82-701/702)
81-0901/0902 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15M Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (82-703, 84-704)
81-0903 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15N Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-705)
81-0904/0906 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15P Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-706/708)
81-0907/0911 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15Q Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-709/713)
81-0912/0915 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15R Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-714/717)
81-0916/0920 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15S Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-718/720,
85-721,722)
81-0921/0922 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15T Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (85-723/724)
81-0923/0926 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15U Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (85-725/728)
81-0927/0930 Cancelled order for F-16As to Pakistan.
Replaced by an order for "new" F-16Bs.
81-0931/0932 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15D Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (81-601/602)
81-0933/0934 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15E Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (81-603/604)
81-0935/0936 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15M Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (83-605,84-606)
81-0937/0938 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15N Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (84-607/608)
81-1504 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15U Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (85-609)
81-1505/1507 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15V Fighting Falcon
built for export to Pakistan (85-610/612)
90-0942/0947 General Dynamics F-16A Block 15AM OCU Fighting Falcon
sold to Pakistan as 91-729,92-730/734
All are embargoed at MASDC since 1992.
90-0948/0952 General Dynamics F-16B Block 15AM OCU Fighting Falcon
sold to Pakistan as 91-613, 92-614/617
All are embargoed at MASDC since 1992.
92-404/408 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AQ OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 92-735/92-738, 93-739
404 embargoed at AMARC Jun 23, 1993 as FG0010.
405 embargoed at AMARC Jul 15, 1993 as FG0011.
406 embargoed at AMARC Sept 21, 1993 as FG0034.
407 embargoed at AMARC Sept 28, 1993 as FG0036.
408 embargoed at AMARC Sept 29, 1993 as FG0037.
These planes leased to New Zealand in 1999
92-409/410 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AR OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 93-740/93-741
409 embargoed at AMARC Dec 20, 1993 as FG0039.
410 embargoed at AMARC Dec 21, 1993 as FG0040.
These planes leased to New Zealand in 1999.
92-411/413 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AV OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-742/9.-744
Production cancelled.
92-414/418 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AW OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-745/9.-749
Production cancelled.
92-419/423 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AX OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-750/9.-754
Production cancelled
92-424/428 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AY OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-755/9.-759
Production cancelled
92-429/436 Lockheed F-16A Block 15AZ OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-760/9.-767
Production cancelled
92-437/445 Lockheed F-16A Block 15BA OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-768/9.-776
Production cancelled.
92-446/451 Lockheed F-16A Block 15BB OCU Fighting Falcon
For Pakistan as 9.-777/9.-782
Production cancelled.
92-452 Lockheed/General Dynamics F-16B Block 15AQ OCU
Fighting Falcon
for Pakistan as 92-618
Embargoed at AMARC Aug 25, 1993 as FG0026.
Leased to New Zealand in 1999.
92-453/455 Lockheed F-16B Block 15AR OCU Fighting Falcon
for Pakistan as 93-619, 93-620,621
453 embargoed at AMARC Dec 2, 1993 as FG0038
454 embargoed at AMARC Mar 9, 1994 as FG0101
455 embargoed at AMARC Mar 9, 1994 as FG0102
92-456/457 Lockheed F-16B Block 15AS OCU Fighting Falcon
for Pakistan as 9.-622/9.-623
456 embargoed at AMARC July 20, 1994 as FG0183.
457 embargoed at AMARC Aug 4, 1994 as FG0202.
Leased to New Zealand in 1999.
92-458/463 Lockheed F-16B Block 15AU OCU Fighting Falcon
for Pakistan as 9.-624/9.-629
458 embargoed at AMARC Oct 4, 1994 as FG0239
459 embargoed at AMARC Nov 2, 1994 as FG0271.
460 embargoed at AMARC Nov 2, 1994 as FG0270.
461 embargoed at AMARC Dec 7, 1994 as FG0298.
462 and 463 were cancelled.
These planes were leased to New Zealand in 1999.
Sources:
- Combat Aircraft F-16, Doug Richardson,
Crescent, 1992.
- General Dynamics Aircraft and their
Predecessors, John Wegg, Naval Institute Press, 1990.
- The American Fighter, Enzo Angelucci and
Peter Bowers, Orion, 1987.
- United States Military Aircraft Since
1909, Gordon Swanborough and Peter M. Bowers, Smithsonian, 1989.
- F-16 Fighting Falcon--A Major Review of
the West's Universal Warplane, Robert F. Dorr, World Airpower Journal, Spring 1991.
- The World's Great Interceptor Aircraft,
Gallery, 1989.
- Modern Military Aircraft--F-16 Viper, Lou
Drendel, Squadron/Signal Publications, 1992.
- Lockheed F-16 Variants, Part 1, World
Airpower Journal, Volume 21, Summer 1995.
- Pakistani Border Battles, Lindsay Peacock,
World Airpower Journal, Volume 10, Autumn 1992.
- Modern Military Aircraft--F-16 Viper, Lou
Drendel, Squadron/Signal Publications, 1992.
- Pakistan Air Force, World Airpower
Journal, Volume 6, 1991.
- Airscene Headlines, Air International,
August 1995.
- Lockheed Martin F-16 Operators: Part 2,
Peter R. Foster, World Airpower Journal, Volume 24, Spring 1996.
- US Library of Congress Country Study --
Pakistan
